![]() One example of second-order properties is the degree of dispersion (e.g., clustered, dispersed, or random) of a point pattern (Oyana & Margai, 2016). The former focuses on the characteristics of individual locations and their variations across space, whereas the latter focuses on properties that concern not only individual points, but also the interactions between points and their influences on one another. ![]() Generally, these properties can be divided into two categories: first-order properties and second-order properties. Previous studies have developed various methods and measurements, such as density-based methods and distance-based methods, to analyze, model, visualize, and interpret the properties of point patterns. Point pattern analysis (PPA) studies the spatial distribution of points (Boots & Getis, 1988).
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